The Surface Versus Subsurface Divide

Footnotes

  1. The province of BC has not included subsurface rights in most land grants issued after 1891. As a result, the surface owner of property rarely owns underlying mineral rights, except in areas of early settlement such as Vancouver Island and the Fraser Valley.
  2. Mineral Tenure Act, RSBC 1996, c. 292. This Act has remained largely unchanged since it was enacted in the late 1800s during the gold rush era.
  3. The other forms of subsurface tenure in BC are freehold mineral tenure and Crown granted mineral claims. The first, a freehold mineral tenure, is a right that was historically granted as part of another land tenure, such as a surface or railway grant. Over time, many of these tenures were cancelled in one way or another – today only a few freehold mineral tenures remain in force in BC. The second, Crown granted mineral claim, was administered under the previous provincial Land Act. The last Crown granted mineral claims were issued in 1957. Holders of Crown granted mineral claims were granted mineral rights as specified in the actual grant or as defined in the mining legislation in force at the time the tenure was issued. The Crown granted mineral claims are excluded from application of the provincial Mineral Tenure Act leaving affected lands vulnerable to a lack of regulatory control over surface/subsurface matters dealt with under that legislation. From BC Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, A Guide to Surface and Subsurface Rights and Responsibilities in British Columbia (Victoria: BC Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, 2010) at 2-3.
  4. Judah Harrison, Too Much At Stake: The Need for Mineral Tenure in BC (Vancouver: Ecojustice, June 2010) at 5.
  5. Judah Harrison, Too Much At Stake: The Need for Mineral Tenure in BC (Vancouver: Ecojustice, June 2010) at 5.
  6. Mineral Tenure Regulations, BC Reg 529/2004, Schedule B: $25 for individuals under the age of 65 or individual partnerships; $500 for corporations or corporate partnerships.
  7. Mineral Tenure Act, RSBC 1996, c 292, ss 7, 8(2), 11(1).
  8. Mineral Tenure Act, RSBC 1996, c 292, s 6.2(1); see Mineral Tenure Online (MTO), online at: https://www.mtonline.gov.bc.ca/mtov/home.do. The MTO allows the recorded holders to register mining activities completed to maintain those claims, and facilitates the transfer of interests in mineral titles between miners. Note: there are benefits to an online system and these may include the benefits of avoiding the potential for misidentification of areas and overlap with areas that are already taken up or otherwise unavailable.
  9. Newfoundland and Labrador province currently has an operational online mineral claim registration system (Newfoundland and Labrador Ministry of Natural Resources, Ministerial Statement on Online mineral claim staking program, (Minister’s Statement) (Newfoundland and Labrador Ministry of Natural Resources April 11, 2005), online: <http://www.releases.gov.nl.ca/releases/2005/nr/0411n02.htm>). Ontario plans to introduce online mineral claim registration in the future in accordance with the Mining Act amendment bill (Bill 173) passed in October 2009. The Newfoundland and Labrador online claiming system has similar functionality to BC’s MTO system.
  10. The latest available figures show that the total area of mineral claims staked in BC increased from 8.9 million hectares in December 2005 to almost 13 million hectares in December 2009. Christopher Pollon, “B.C. to crack down on online staking of mineral claims”, Globe and Mail, (June 1, 2010), online:<http://v1.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20100601.escenic_1588870/BNStory/National/>.
  11. Mineral Tenure Regulations, BC Reg 529/2004, Schedule B. It costs $1.75 per hectare to register a mineral cell claim.
  12. Mineral Tenure Act, RSBC 1996, c 292, s 1.
  13. In legal terms, a mineral claim is considered to be a chattel interest (personal property) as opposed to an interest in real property (land).
  14. Mineral Tenure Act, RSBC 1996, c 292, ss 14(1), 28.
  15. Mineral Tenure Act, RSBC 1996, c 292, s 19(1) (this notice requirement applies to surface landowners; Crown land lease holders; and Crown land disposition holders); Mineral Tenure Act Regulation, BC Reg 529/2004, s 2.1(1). The Chief Gold Commissioner may exempt persons from this requirement where reasonable efforts to serve notice have been unsuccessful (s 2(1.1)).
  16. Mineral Tenure Act, RSBC 1996, c 292, ss 19(2), 19(7), 19(8).
  17. Hupacasath First Nation v British Columbia (Minister of Forests) et al, 2005 BCSC 1712 at 191, 199.
  18. Ross River Dena Council v Government of the Yukon, 2012 YKCA 14; West Moberly First Nations v. British Columbia (Chief Inspector of Mines), 2011 BCCA 247; leave to SCC refused Her Majesty the Queen in Right of British Columbia as represented by Al Hoffman, Chief Inspector of Mines et al. v. Chief Roland Willson on his Own Behalf and on Behalf of all the Members of West Moberly First Nations et al., 2012 CanLII 8361 (SCC).
  19. In legal terms, a mineral lease is considered to be an interest in real property (land) as opposed to a chattel interest (personal property).
  20. Mineral Tenure Act, RSBC 1996, c 292, ss 42(4), (5), 48(2).
  21. Mineral Tenure Act, RSBC 1996, c 292, s 42(1).
  22. Mineral Tenure Regulations, BC Reg 529/2004, Schedule B. The application fee for a mining lease is $100 (s 13), and the annual rental fee for a mining lease is $20 per hectare (s 14).
  23. Mineral Tenure Act, RSBC 1996, c 292, s 42(4): “If the chief gold commissioner is satisfied that the recorded holder has met all of the requirements…the chief gold commissioner must issue a mining lease”.
  24. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Minerals and Private Land in British Columbia, (Fact Sheet) (Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, May 7, 2008), online: <www.empr.gov.bc.ca/Titles/MineralTitles/Pub/Documents/LON/Factsheet_LON_Landowners.pdf>.
  25. Petroleum and Natural Gas Act, RSBC 1996, c 361, s 71(2).
  26. DISCUSSION PAPER on the TENURE Provisions of the PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS ACT and Regulations, at 12.
  27. Petroleum and Natural Gas Act, RSBC 1996, c 361, s 72(3).
  28. Queensland Department of Natural Resources and Mines, Restricted Area 394: Improving the management of coal resources in Queensland (June 2012), online: <http://mines.industry.qld.gov.au/assets/mines-pdf/Restricted-Area-394-factsheet_Jun-12.pdf>.
  29. Queensland Department of Natural Resources and Mines, Restricted Area 394: Improving the management of coal resources in Queensland (June 2012), online: <http://mines.industry.qld.gov.au/assets/mines-pdf/Restricted-Area-394-factsheet_Jun-12.pdf>.
  30. Queensland Department of Natural Resources and Mines, Restricted Area 394: Improving the management of coal resources in Queensland (June 2012), online: http://mines.industry.qld.gov.au/assets/mines-pdf/Restricted-Area-394-factsheet_Jun-12.pdf; Eugene Fung & Paul Gregory, Energy & Resources Alert: Competitive bidding tender process for Queensland coal tenures (Australia: Thomson Lawyers, 2012).
  31. Queensland Department of Natural Resources and Mines, Restricted Area 394: Improving the management of coal resources in Queensland (June 2012), online: <http://mines.industry.qld.gov.au/assets/mines-pdf/Restricted-Area-394-factsheet_Jun-12.pdf>.
  32. Afghanistan, The Minerals Law, 14 February 2010, art 15(3).
  33. Afghanistan, The Minerals Law, 14 February 2010, art 15(3).
  34. Alyson Warhurst & Maria Ligia Noronha, eds., Environmental Policy in Mining: Corporate Strategy and Planning for Closure, (Washington: Lewis Publishers, 2000) at 298; India, Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957, s 17A.
  35. For example, members of the Takla Lake First Nation have reported an increase in the number of outsiders sighted in their traditional territories since the advent of MTO. It is often unclear to members of Takla who these outside prospectors are given that the community receives no notification from the MTO system.
  36. International Human Rights Clinic, Bearing the Burden: The Effects of Mining on First Nations in British Columbia, (Harvard Law School: 2010) at 104; First Nations Mining Summit, The State of Mineral Exploration and Mining in British Columbia 2008(Prince George: First Nations Mining Summit, 2008) at 3; Monisha Martins, “Mining Plan Gets Mixed Reaction”, Caledonia Courier (February 03, 2005): “Chief Leonard Thomas, from the Nak’azdli First Nation, publicly opposed the internet staking program when it was launched, saying that the provincial government has “burdened our traditional territory with numerous third party claims without carrying through on its duty to consult and possibly accommodate us.””
  37. British Columbia Assembly of First Nations, “Governance Toolkit: A Guide to Nation Building” at 352, (2011), online: <http://fnbc.info/bcafn-governance-toolkit-guide-nation-building-part-1>: “This free-entry staking system is a cause of much conflict with our Nations and leads to money and effort being wasted on potential projects that may not be acceptable to First Nations”; Dogwood Initiative, “Online mineral staking in conflict with Supreme Court ruling” (20 January 2005), online: <http://dogwoodinitiative.org/media-centre/news-stories/online_mineral_staking_in_conflict_with_supreme court>.
  38. Dan Jepsen, et al., Mineral Exploration, Mining and Aboriginal Community Engagement (Vancouver: Association for mineral Exploration in British Columbia, 2005), online: http://commdev.org/content/document/detail/843/.
  39. Ross River Dena Council v. Government of Yukon, 2012 YKCA 14, para 6.
  40. Mining Act, RSO 1990, c M 14, s 2.
  41. Philippines Indigenous Peoples Rights Act of 1997, (Rep Act No 8371), s 57.
  42. Republic of Ecuador, Constitution of 2008, art 57(7).
  43. Philippine Mining Act of 1995, (Rep Act 7942) ss 4, 16; National Commission on Indigenous Peoples Administrative Order No 3Series of 2002, Philippines.
  44. New Zealand Resource Management Act (NZ), ss 85A.
  45. Ontario Ministry of Northern Affairs, Mining and Development, Proposed Regulation under the Mining Act (October 19, 2011).
  46. New Zealand Crown Minerals Act 1991 (NZ) 1991/70, s 51(1). Section 1 of the Resource Management Act 1991 (NZ) defines ‘iwi authority’ as – “ the authority which represents an iwi and which is recognised by that iwi as having authority to do so”.
  47. Crown Minerals Act, RSS 1984-85-86, c C-50.2, s 18.2(1). An iwi is a Māori tribe descended from a common named ancestor or ancestors, and is usually comprised of a number of hapū, or sub-tribes. An iwi authority is the authority recognized by an iwi as representing it: Te Puni Kōkiri (Ministry of Māori Development) (New Zealand), online: http://www.tkm.govt.nz/glossary/.
  48. BC First Nations Energy & Mining Council, Environmental Assessment and First Nations in BC: Proposals for Reform (West Vancouver: First Nations Energy & Mining Council, 2009) at 22-23 [emphasis added].
  49. BC First Nations Energy & Mining Council, Environmental Assessment and First Nations in BC: Proposals for Reform (West Vancouver: First Nations Energy & Mining Council, 2009) at 5.
  50. Province of British Columbia, “Updated Procedures For Meeting Legal Obligations When Consulting First Nations: Interim” (May 2010) at 6, online: <http://www.gov.bc.ca/arr/reports/down/updated_procedures.pdf>.
  51. Yukon Environmental and Socio-economic Assessment Act, SC 2003, c 7, s 3.
  52. Mackenzie Valley Resource Management Act, SC 1998, c 25, s 3.
  53. James Anaya, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the rights of indigenous peoples on the situation of the Sami people in the Sápmi region of Norway, Sweden and Finland (Addendum)United Nations Human Rights Council, 18th Sess, Agenda Item 3, UN Doc A/HRC/18/35/Add2 at 11.
  54. Republic of Bolivia, Constitution of 2009, art 30(II)(15).
  55. Exploration Regulation, Alta. Reg. 284/2006, s 8(1)(a).
  56. Mineral Act, RSNL 1990, c M-12, s 12(2). Note that section 13, however, allows for the minister to grant an order to dispense with the consent requirement.
  57. Mining Act, SNB 1985, c M-14.1, s 68(1)(c)(iv)(B)(II).
  58. Victoria (Australia), Mineral Resources (Sustainable Development) Act 1990, s 42(2)(c)(i). Note that consent may not be required if: the owners or occupiers are instead compensated; the licensee purchased the land; or the regulatory authority believed that all reasonable efforts were taken to determine the contact information for such owners and operators, and these efforts were unsuccessful.
  59. Germany, Federal Mining Act (Bundesberggesetz) 13 August 1980 (BGBI. I S. 1310), §§ 39, 40.
  60. Government of the Philippines, Philippine Mining Act of 1995, s 19(e).
  61. Koh Naito, Felix Remy and John P Williams, Review of Legal and Fiscal Frameworks for Exploration and Mining (London: Mining Journal Books Ltd, 2001) at 130.
  62. Charles Wilkinson, Crossing the Next Meridian: Land, Water and the Future of the West (Washington DC, Island Press, 1992) at 300.
  63. BC Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Terms of Reference for Regional Mine Development Review Committees (Victoria: BC Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, 2010) at 4, online: <http://www.empr.gov.bc.ca/Mining/Permitting-Reclamation/RMDRCs/Documents/ToR.pdf>.
  64. Report on the Status of Strategic Land Use Plans in British Columbia, Appendix 2 (British Columbia, Strategic Land Policy Branch (SLPB) and the Integrated Land Management Bureau, 2006) online: <http://www.al.gov.bc.ca/clad/strategic_land/lup_status.pdf>. For an overview of British Columbia’s recent efforts to conduct Land Use Planning, see: Judah Harrison, Too Much At Stake: The Need for Mineral Tenure in BC (Vancouver: Ecojustice, June 2010) Appendix A.
  65. Mineral Tenure Act, RSBC 1996, c 292, s 14(5).
  66. BC First Nations Energy & Mining Council, BC First Nations Mineral Exploration and Mining: Action Plan (West Vancouver: BC First Nations Energy & Mining Council, 2008) at 9. Under BC’s “Free Entry” Mineral Tenure regime, proponents enjoy automatic rights to the minerals (through claims) and lands (through leases). The provincial government does not have the discretion to balance other competing land uses in deciding whether or not to grant mineral title on mineral lands.
  67. Mining Act, RSO 1990, c M.14, s 30.
  68. Far North Act, 2010, SO 2010, c 18, s 11(1).
  69. Far North Act, 2010, SO 2010, c 18, s 14(2). No mining can be carried out “if a community based land use plan has designated the lands for a use inconsistent with mineral exploration and development.” Ontario Mining Act, RSO 1990, CHAPTER M.14, (last amended 2010, c 18, s 23), s 30(g).
  70. Northwest Territories and Nunavut Mining Regulations, CRC, c 1516, s 11(1).
  71. Maureen Carter-Whitney & Justin Duncan, Balancing Needs, Minimizing Conflict: A Proposal for a Mining Modernizing Act, 2008 (Toronto: Canadian Institute for Environmental Law and Policy and Ecojustice, 2008) at 8; NWT Protected Areas Strategy Advisory Committee, Northwest Territories Protected Areas Strategy: A Balanced Approach to Establishing Protected Areas in the Northwest Territories, (NWT Protected Areas Strategy Advisory Committee: February 15, 1999); Mackenzie Valley Resource Management Act, SC 1998, c 25, M.0.2.
  72. Yukon Environmental and Socio-economic Assessment Act, SC 2003, c 7s 44.
  73. Government du Québec, An Act to Amend the Mining Act, [Bill 79], online: <http://www.mrnf.gouv.qc.ca/english/mines/quebec-mines/2010-02/project.asp>.
  74. Government of the United States, Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act, USC §1272(a) (1977).
  75. US, 2010 West Virginia Code, Chapter 22. Environmental Resources, Art 3; Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation Act, 2010, W Va, §22-3-22(a)(4), online: <http://www.dep.wv.gov/dmr/codes/Documents/2009%20Mining%20Code.pdf>.
  76. Eva Liedholm Johnson, Mineral Rights: Legal Systems Regulatory Exploration and Exploitation (Doctoral Thesis in Real Estate Planning, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH)) (Stockholm: Department of Real Estate and Construction Management, School of Architecture and the Built Environment, SE-100 44, 2010) at 74, online: < http://kth.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2:300248>; Minerals Ordinance, Sweden SFS 1992:285, s 16.
  77. Mineral Tenure Act, RSBC 1996, c 292, s 17(1).
  78. Maureen Carter-Whitney & Justin Duncan, Balancing Needs, Minimizing Conflict: A Proposal for a Mining Modernizing Act, 2008 (Toronto: Canadian Institute for Environmental Law and Policy and Ecojustice, 2008) at 7.
  79. Mining Act, RSO 1990, c M.14, ss 204(2); the sole exception to this requirement is where the project is deemed to be in the social and economic interests of Ontario (Mining Act, RSO 1990, c M.14, s 204(3)).
  80. Ta’an Kwach’an Council, Lands and Resources Act (First Reading), s 24(3).
  81. British Columbia Strategic Land Policy Branch (SLPB) and the Integrated Land Management BureauReport on the Status of Strategic Land Use Plans in British Columbia, Appendix 2 (October 2006), online: <http://www.al.gov.bc.ca/clad/strategic_land/lup_status.pdf>.
  82. British Columbia Strategic Land Policy Branch (SLPB) and the Integrated Land Management Bureau, Report on the Status of Strategic Land Use Plans in British Columbia, Appendix 2 (October 2006), online: <http://www.al.gov.bc.ca/clad/strategic_land/lup_status.pdf>.
  83. Muskwa-Kechika Management Area Act, SBC 1998, c 38, online: <http://www.muskwa-kechika.com>.
  84. Muskwa-Kechika Management Area Act, SBC 1998, c 38, preamble: the Muskwa-Kechika Management Area covers an area of approximately 4.45 million hectares in north-eastern BC.
  85. Kunst’aa guu – Kunst’aayah Reconciliation Protocol (11 December 2009), online: <http://www.haidanation.ca/Pages/Agreements/PDF/Finalhaida_reconciliation_protocol.pdf>.
  86. Haida Gwaii Reconciliation Act, SBC 2010, c 17.
  87. The Squamish Nation et al v British Columbia (Minister of Sustainable Resource Management) et al, 2004 BCSC 1320.
  88. Mineral Tenure Act, RSBC 1996, c 292, ss 14, 17.
  89. Michael Lewis and Sara-Jane Brocklehurst, “Aboriginal Mining Guide: How to negotiate lasting benefits for your community” (Port Alberni: Canadian Centre for Community Renewal, 2009) at Module 2-8, referring to Category A Settlement Lands.
  90. Far North Act, 2010, SO 2010, c 18, s 11(1).
  91. New Zealand Crown Minerals Act 1991 No 70, s 15(3). An iwi  is a maori community, similar to a First Nation.
  92. República de Colombia, Mining Code, Law 685 of 2001, art 127 (Restricted Indigenous Mining Areas), online (Español): <http://www.simco.gov.co/english/Home/DocumentsofInterest/MiningCode/tabid/415/language/en-US/Default.aspx>. This Mining Code was modified by Law 1382 of 2010 which intended to add requirements for concession contracts proposals, mining zones and extensions and renewals of contracts, among others. It is important to note that even when the Constitutional Court, in its judgement C366 of 2011 declared Law 1382/10 unconstitutional, the effects of the decision have been deferred for two more years in order to protect the ethnic groups’ rights, until the Congress issues another law that regulates the subject. Nevertheless, art 127 of the Mining Code has not been modified by Law 1382, so this article still applies for this subject.
  93. Province of British Columbia & Taku River Tlingit First Nation, Wóoshtin wudidaa Atlin Taku Land Use Plan (July 2011), online: < http://www.newrelationship.gov.bc.ca/shared/downloads/atline_taku_land_use_plan.pdf>; Squamish Nation et al v. The Minister of Sustainable Resource Management et al (2004 BCSC 1320), para 15.
  94. Bill 49, An Act to amend the Protected Areas of British Columbia Act, 4th Sess, 38th Leg, British Columbia, 2012 (as assented to 31 May 2012), BC 2012, c 32.
  95. Patrick Armstrong, “Conflict Resolution and British Columbia’s Great Bear Rainforest: Lessons Learned” (3 August 2009), online at Coast Forest Conservation Initiative: <http://www.coastforestconservationinitiative.com/pdf7/GBR_PDF.pdf>.
  96. Park Act, RSBC 1996, c 344, ss 3(1), 4.2.
  97. The Whitehorse Mining Initiative, Leadership Council Accord, Final Report, (Whitehorse: The Whitehorse Mining Initiative, October 1994) at 20.
  98. Republic of Bolivia, Constitution, art 385(II), October 2008, online: <http://faculty.smcm.edu/mfbilgin/nueva_cpe.txt>.
  99. Far North Act, 2010, SO 2010, c 18, s 5.
  100. Mackenzie Valley Resource Management Act, SC 1998, c 25, s 41(4).
  101. Government of Alberta, Bill 10, Alberta Land Stewardship Amendment Act, 4th Sess, 27th Leg, Alberta, 2011, (assented to 13 May 2011), SA 2011, c 9.
  102. Far North Act, 2010, SO 2010, c 18, s 9(8)(c).
  103. The Constitution of the Republic of Ghana, art 267(8).
  104. Mackenzie Valley Resource Management Act, SC 1998, c 25, M-0.2; NWT Protected Areas Strategy Advisory Committee, Northwest Territories Protected Areas Strategy, 15 February 1999, online: <www.nwtpas.ca>.
  105. Government of Yukon, Executive Council Office, online: <http://www.eco.gov.yk.ca/dab_process.html>.
  106. Yukon Fish and Wildlife Management Board, online: <http://www.yfwmb.ca/>.
  107. Far North Act, 2010, SO 2010, c 18, s 6.
  108. Jennifer Griffith, “Implementing First Nation Land Use Plans: Challenges and Results” (Paper 4.2 delivered at the Continuing Legal Education Society of BC Aboriginal Law Conference, Vancouver 2008) at 2-3.
  109. Lil’wat First Nation, Lil’wat Land Use Plan: Phase 1, The Vision and Plan for the Land and Resources of Lil’wat Nation Traditional Territory, online: < http://www.lilwat.ca/lilwat7ul/our-land/lilwat-land-use-plan.cfm>.
  110. For example, areas are identified as Nt’ákmen (Our Way) areas, Collaborative Management areas, Cultural Education areas, Stewardship areas, Conditional Economic Development areas, and Managed Resource Use areas; Jennifer Griffith, “Implementing First Nation Land Use Plans: Challenges and Results” (Paper 4.2 delivered at the Continuing Legal Education Society of BC Aboriginal Law Conference, Vancouver 2008) at 2-3.
  111. Judah Harrison, Too Much At Stake: The Need for Mineral Tenure in BC (Vancouver: Ecojustice, June 2010) at 5.
  112. Mineral Tenure Act, RSBC 1996, c 292, s s11(2), 21.
  113. Cofrin v Bicchieri,  1977 CanLII 354, para 73.
  114. Mineral Tenure Act, RSBC 1996, c 292, ss 14(5), 21, 22; Mineral Tenure Act Regulation, BC Reg 529/2004, ss 1 (definition of “alienated lands”), 4(2); Mineral and Coal Land Reserve (No Mineral or Placer Mineral Registrations) Regulation, BC Reg 280/2007; and Mineral and Coal Land Reserve (No Mineral Claim Registrations) Regulation, BC Reg 171/2011.
  115. British Columbia Indian Reserves Mineral Resources Act, SC 1943-44, c 19, s 3: “provided…that no prospecting or right of entry on the said Indian Reserve shall be authorized or permitted until permission so to do has been obtained from the Indian Agent for such Reserve”.
  116. RSBC 1996, c 187.
  117. SC 2000, c 32, ss 13, 15(2).
  118. RSBC 1996, c 344, s 16.
  119. RSBC 1996, c 323.
  120. SBC 2000, c 17.
  121. RSBC 1996, c 103.
  122. RSBC 1996, c 117.
  123. RSBC 1996, c 245, s 93.1.
  124. Mineral Tenure Act, RSBC 1996, c 292, ss 11(2), 14(5), 21, 22; Mineral Tenure Act Regulation, BC Reg 529/2004, ss1, 4(2); Mineral and Coal Land Reserve (No Mineral or Placer Mineral Registrations) Regulation, BC Reg 280/2007; and Mineral and Coal Land Reserve (No Mineral Claim Registrations) Regulation, BC Reg 171/2011.
  125. Mineral Tenure Act, RSBC 1996, c 292, ss 17(1),(2).
  126. Mineral Tenure Act, RSBC 1996, c 292, s 1.
  127. Mineral Tenure Act, RSBC 1996, c 292, ss 17(1),(2).
  128. Mineral Tenure Act, RSBC 1996, c 292, s 14(5)(e).
  129. Mineral Tenure Act, RSBC 1996, c 292, s 1.
  130. Heritage Conservation Act, RSBC 1996, c 187, s 13.
  131. Interview of Ewan Anderson, Heritage Resource Specialist, Archaeology Branch, BC Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations (20 October 2011): Ancient First Nations’ burial sites are generally considered to have archaeological value.
  132. Mineral Tenure Act Regulation, BC Reg 529/2004, s 11.
  133. Heritage Conservation Act, RSBC 1996, c 187, s 12.
  134. Although there is no written requirement to consult First Nations under the Heritage Conservation Act, the Provincial government’s Archeological Branch is required to do so as part of the Crown’s duty to consult First Nations and the Crown’s administrative law duty to consult interested third parties, which in this case include First Nations.
  135. For example, trees modified by traditional use after 1846 are not afforded automatic protection under the Heritage Conservation Act.
  136. Heritage Conservation Act, RSBC 1996, c 187, s 9.
  137. Heritage Conservation Act, RSBC 1996, c 187, s 4.
  138. Heritage Conservation Act, RSBC 1996, c 187, s 4(4)(a); This provision offers similar protection to that provided in New Zealand which states that: “On the request of an iwi, a minerals programme may provide that defined areas of land of particular importance to its mana are excluded from the operation of the minerals programme or shall not be included in any permit.” (New Zealand, Crown Minerals Act 1991 No 70, s 15(3)).
  139. Local Government Act RSBC 1996, c 323, s 967; Vancouver Charter SBC 1953, c 55, s 593.
  140. Local Government Act RSBC 1996, c 323, s 970.1(3)(b)).
  141. Interview of Ewan Anderson, Heritage Resource Specialist, Archaeology Branch, BC Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations (20 October 2011).
  142. Yukon Government, Quartz Mining Land Use Regulation, OIC 2003/64, Schedule 1, s 8.
  143. Mining Act, RSO 1990, c M.14, s 30.
  144. California Surface Mining and Reclamation Act of 1975, Public Resources Code, Division 2, Chapter 9, Section 2710 et seq., January 2007, § 2773.3.
  145. Eva Liedholm Johnson, Mineral Rights: Legal Systems Regulatory Exploration and Exploitation (Doctoral Thesis in Real Estate Planning, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH)) (Stockholm: Department of Real Estate and Construction Management, School of Architecture and the Built Environment, SE-100 44, 2010) at 73, online: < http://kth.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2:300248>; Minerals Act, Sweden SFS 1991:45, c 3, s 6.
  146. British Columbia Assembly of First Nations, Governance Toolkit: A Guide to Nation Building, 2011, online: <http://fnbc.info/bcafn-governance-toolkit-guide-nation-building-part-1> at 352: For the most part, the system does not recognize un-extinguished Aboriginal title and rights, although some “no staking reserves” have been established to prevent new mineral rights being granted on lands that are potentially subject to Aboriginal title.
  147. Quartz Mining Act, SY 2003, c 14, s 15(2).
  148. Kerajaan Negeri Selangor & Ors v Sagong Tasi & Ors [2005] 4 CLJ 169.
  149. Afghanistan, The Minerals Law, 14 February 2010, art 11(1).
  150. Haida Nation v British Columbia (Minister of Forests) [2005] 3 SCR 511.
  151. Canada National Parks Act, SC 2000, c 32, ss 13, 15(2); “Mining is no longer permitted in national parks in Canada;” online: <http://www.pc.gc.ca/pn-np/ab/jasper/visit/visit20.aspx>.
  152. Mineral Tenure Act, RSBC 1996, c 292 ss 11(2), 14(5), 21; Mineral Tenure Act Regulation, BC Reg 529/2004, ss 1 (definition of “alienated land”), 4(2).
  153. David R. Boyd, Wild by Law: A Report Card on Laws Regulatory Canada’s Parks and Protected Areas, and a Blueprint for Making these Laws More Effective (Victoria: The POLIS Project on Ecological Governance, 2002) at 12-13.
  154. BC Parks, Strathcona-Westmin Provincial Park (information sheet), online: <http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/bcparks/explore/parkpgs/strath_wm/>.
  155. Park Act, RSBC 1996, c 344, s 5(1).
  156. Mineral Tenure Act, RSBC 1996, c 292, s 21: provides that mineral exploration can still be conducted if “authorized by the Lieutenant Governor in Council on the recommendation of the person, corporation or government that is responsible for the park or the area of land”; Park Act, RSBC 1996, c 344, ss 9(2),16(c): General need for a park use permit or resource use permit to “exercise in a park, conservancy or recreation area any right under the Mineral Tenure Act, the Coal Act or the Petroleum and Natural Gas Act”.
  157. Park Act, RSBC 1996, c 344, s 31.
  158. Park Act, RSBC 1996, c 344, s 7(1).
  159. Mineral Tenure Act, RSBC 1996, c 292 s 17.1(1); Park Act, RSBC 1996, c 344, s 11(2.2); Park Act, RSBC 1996, c 344, s 11(2), power to expropriate mineral rights to establish or enlarge a park; R. v Tener, [1985] 1 SCR 533.
  160. Park Act, RSBC 1996, c 344, s 20.1: applies to 18 conservancies currently listed in Schedule F of the Protected Areas of British Columbia Act.
  161. Ecological Reserve Regulations, BC Reg 335/75, s 1.
  162. Friends of Ecological Reserves, State of British Columbia’s Ecological Reserves (Victoria: Friends of Ecological Reserves, 2005) at 3.
  163. Mining Act, RSO 1990, c M.14, s 31; Provincial Parks and Conservation Reserves Act, 2006, SO 2006, c 12, s 16(1).
  164. Eva Liedholm Johnson, Mineral Rights: Legal Systems Regulatory Exploration and Exploitation (Doctoral Thesis in Real Estate Planning, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH)) (Stockholm: Department of Real Estate and Construction Management, School of Architecture and the Built Environment, SE-100 44, 2010) at 65, online: < http://kth.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2:300248>; Minerals Act, Sweden SFS 1991:45, c 3, s 6. In Sweden, Natura 2000 areas are protected from mining.
  165. Government of the Philippines, Philippine Mining Act of 1995, s 19(f); Department Administrative Order No. 25, series of 1992, National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) under RA 7586, Chapter II, s 2.
  166. Republic of Ecuador Constitution of 2008 (Rev ed. 31 January 2011), art 407, online: <http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Constitutions/Ecuador/english08.html>.
  167. Mineral Resources Regulations, NS Reg 222/2004s 73(3).
  168. Government du Québec, An Act to Amend the Mining Act, [Bill 79], online: <http://www.mrnf.gouv.qc.ca/english/mines/quebec-mines/2010-02/project.asp>.
  169. Water Protection Act, RSBC 1996, c 484, s 1(1): Major watersheds are defined as the Fraser, Mackenzie, Columbia, Skeena, Nass, Stikine, Taku, and Yukon Watersheds, and the Coastal Watershed which comprises the rest of British Columbia.
  170. Water Protection Act, RSBC 1996, c 484, s 2.
  171. Takla Lake First Nation, Kemess North: Insights and Lessons (Mining Coordinator’s Report, 2009), online: <http://www.carriersekani.ca/images/docs/lup/KemessNorthTaklaReportAug2009.pdf>.
  172. R.A.V.E.N., “Fish Lake” (webpage), online: <http://www.raventrust.com/fishlaketeztanbiny.html>.
  173. North Tyndal – Designation and Regulations, NS Reg. 200/92, s 12, under Nova Scotia Environment Act SNS 199495, c 1, ss 106(5),(6).
  174. Wild and Scenic Rivers, USC tit 16 Chapter 28 (Conservation), §1280(a)(iii).
  175. República de Colombia, Mining Code, Law 685 of 2001, art 34 (excluded mining areas), online (Español): <http://www.simco.gov.co/english/Home/DocumentsofInterest/MiningCode/tabid/415/language/en-US/Default.aspx>. This law was recently amended to expand the areas in which mining is prohibited. Under the old provision, no mining activity could take place in national natural parks, natural parks with regional character or forest reserves. Under the amended legislation, this prohibition is extended to the paramo ecosystem and wetlands designated under the Ramsar Convention. Note that the amendments of Law 1382/2010, to add requirements for concession contracts proposals, mining zones and extensions and renewals of contracts, etc., were declared unconstitutional by the Colombian Constitutional Court C366/2011. However, the effects of the decision have been deferred for two years in order to protect the ethnic groups’ rights, until the Congress enacts a constitutional version of the law to regulate this matter.
  176. República de Colombia, Ministry of Environment, Housing and Territorial Development, Resolution No. 1015: denying an environmental license to Canadian company Greystar; online (Español): <http://www.minambiente.gov.co/documentos/normativa/gaceta_ambiental/2011/res_1015_310511.pdf>,(English): <http://www.efeamerica.com/309_hispanic-world/1060768_canadian-miner-gives-up-on-gold-project-in-colombia.html>.
  177. Migratory Birds Convention Act1994, SC 1994, c 22 s 5.1(1).
  178. Mining Act, RSQ, c M-13.1, s 33(2).
  179. Government of the Philippines, Philippine Mining Act of 1995, s 19(f).
  180. Ecological Reserve Regulations, BC Reg 335/75, s 1.
  181. Government of the United States, Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act, USC §102(c) (1977).
  182. 2010 Minnesota Statutes, 93.47, Subdivision 3.
  183. Montana Code Annotated 2009, 82-4-227(6).
  184. The Whitehorse Mining Initiative, Leadership Council Accord, Final Report, (Whitehorse: The Whitehorse Mining Initiative, October 1994) at 19.
  185. Innu Nation, Guidelines for the Mining Industry: A Matter of Respect, Building a Successful Relationship at 9.
  186. Unimpaired for Future Generations? Protecting Ecological Integrity with Canada’s National Parks, vol. 1 (Ottawa: Parks Canada Agency, 2000) at 16, online <http://dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection/R62-323-2000-1E.pdf>.
  187. Far North Act, 2010, SO 2010, c 18, s 5.
  188. European Commission, Habitats Directive for Natura 2000, Art 6, para 2, online: <http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/natura2000/management/guidance_en.htm>; Within Natura 2000 areas, Member States must “take appropriate conservation measures to maintain and restore the habitats and species for which the site has been designated to a favourable conservation status; and avoid damaging activities that could significantly disturb these species or deteriorate the habitats of the protected species or habitat types.”
  189. Eva Liedholm Johnson, Mineral Rights: Legal Systems Regulatory Exploration and Exploitation (Doctoral Thesis in Real Estate Planning, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH)) (Stockholm: Department of Real Estate and Construction Management, School of Architecture and the Built Environment, SE-100 44, 2010) at 65, 66, online: < http://kth.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2:300248>.
  190. Mineral Tenure Act, RSBC 1996, c 292, ss 11(2), 14(5), 21, 22; Mineral Tenure Act Regulation, BC Reg 529/2004, ss1, 4(2); Mineral and Coal Land Reserve (No Mineral or Placer Mineral Registrations) Regulation, BC Reg 280/2007; and Mineral and Coal Land Reserve (No Mineral Claim Registrations) Regulation, BC Reg 171/2011. (This is similar to Ontario’s Mining Act, RSO 1990, c M.14, s 35(2)).
  191. Ministry of Energy and Mines, Mineral Reserves, online: <http://www.empr.gov.bc.ca/Titles/MineralTitles/Pub/Documents/general/Reserves.pdf>.
  192. Ministry of Energy and Mines, Mineral Reserves online: <http://www.empr.gov.bc.ca/Titles/MineralTitles/Pub/Documents/general/Reserves.pdf>; this power is similar to that of other jurisdictions. In New Brunswick, the Lieutenant-Governor in Council is empowered to withdraw “any land in the Province from prospecting and registration of mineral claims for all or certain minerals” (Mining Act, S.N.B. 1985, c. M-14.1, s 25(1). Similarly, in Manitoba, the Lieutenant Governor in Council is empowered to enact regulations that “designate areas for which mineral exploration licences may not be given” (Mines and Minerals Act, C.C.S.M. c. M162, s 52(1)). In the Unites States, the Secretary of the Interior has the authority to withdraw federal land in any US state from mineral entry (Federal Land Policy and Management Act (FLPMA), 43 U.S.C. § 1714. This “administrative withdrawal” process allows for anyone to file an application for a requested withdrawal action (Federal Land Policy and Management Act (FLPMA), 43 U.S.C. § 2310.1). Upon receiving an application, the Secretary of the Interior will “segregate” the lands for a period of up to two years while it considers whether to impose a withdrawal (The process that the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) follows for evaluating proposals for mining on withdrawn lands can be found at 43 C.F.R. § 3809.100).  Once land is withdrawn, no new mineral claims can be filed on the land. However, it does not preclude development of existing, valid claims. This process has been used to request the withdrawal federal riparian lands in southern Oregon (Oregon Congressman Peter DeFazio, “Defazio, Wyden and Merkley Push to Protect Natural Treasures in Southwest Oregon from Mining” (2010) and federal lands near the Grand Canyon in Arizona (U.S. Department of the Interior Bureau of Land Management, “Proposed Mineral Withdrawal Near Grand Canyon” (June 20, 2011).
  193. Mineral Tenure Act, RSBC 1996, c 292, 22British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines, Request for Reserve: Mineral Tenure Act, s. 22/Coal Act, s. 21 (Application Form), online: <http://www.empr.gov.bc.ca/Titles/MineralTitles/Pub/Forms/Documents/MineralTitlesBC-ReserveRequestForm.pdf >.
  194. Ministry of Energy and Mines, Mineral Reserves, online: <http://www.empr.gov.bc.ca/Titles/MineralTitles/Pub/Documents/general/Reserves.pdf>.
  195. West Virginia has a similar process whereby “any person having an interest which is or may be adversely affected” is granted the legal right to petition the regulatory authority to have an area designated as unsuitable for mining. A clear process – which includes a mandatory public hearing and written reasons for the final decision – is specified in the legislation to guide the regulatory authority’s response to such a petition (West Virginia, Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation Act, s.22-3-22(b).  The public may also apply for the withdrawal of Federal lands from mineral entry under the Unites States’ Federal Land Policy and Management Act (Federal Land Policy and Management Act (FLPMA), 43 U.S.C. § 1714).
  196. Mineral Tenure Act, RSBC 1996 c 292, s 11(2)(d); Agricultural Land Commission Act, SBC 2002, c 36, s 20(3).
  197. Agricultural Land Reserve Use, Subdivision and Procedure Regulation, BC Reg 171/2002, ss 19(b), 29(2)(b), 30.
  198. Agricultural Land Commission Act, SBC 2002, c 36, s 30(4.1).
  199. Agricultural Land Commission Act, SBC 2002, c 36, ss 20(4),(5).
  200. Government of the United States, Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act, USC tit 30 §1257(b)(16) (1977).
  201. Government of the United States, Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act, USC tit 30 §1260(d)(1) (1977).
  202. Government of the United States, Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act, USC tit 30 §1265(b)(7) (1977).
  203. New South Wales (Australia) Mining Act 1992, No.29, s 179(1).
  204. New South Wales (Australia) Mining Act 1992, No.29, Schedule 2.
  205. Victoria (Australia), Mineral Resources (Sustainable Development) Act 1990, s 26A(2).
  206. Victoria (Australia), Mineral Resources (Sustainable Development) Act 1990, s 26A(4).
  207. Victoria (Australia), Mineral Resources (Sustainable Development) Act, 1990, s 26B-26D.

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